Drought, famine, crop failure and the spread of desert, due to climate change, have fanned conflict between herders and farmers. Migration across national boundaries produces unrest. The jihadist group Al-Shabaab has caused additional hardship by cutting water supplies to cities from which it has been expelled.

Lake Chad , close to the borders of Nigeria, Cameroon, Niger and Chad, shrank rapidly between 1960 and 2010, due to climate change. As a consequence of drought and desertification, desperate young men have been attracted to the jihadist Boko Haram, for food and the prospect of pillage.

Major rivers, notably the Nile and the Euphrates, cross national boundaries. Global warming will add to existing disputes between upstream and downstream nations.

It has been reported that over half of the world's major aquifers are now past their sustainability tipping points.

The river Jordan provides water to Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. Israel has been accused of "stealing" water, especially from the occupied West Bank. Gaza is starved of fresh water due to the Israeli blockade. This adds to existing political tensions. Can promising new techniques - desalinating sea-water by reverse osmosis - help to mitigate conflicts over water?

Some scientists predict that by 2100, global warming may cause sea levels to rise by at least 0.2 metres and possibly by as much as 2.5 metres. A rise of just half a metre might be enough to inundate the Egyptian cities of Port Said and Alexandria. An increase of a metre would cover a quarter of the Nile River Delta, the country's breadbasket. This could uproot six million Egyptians, in addition to millions more migrating from parts of the Sahel.

The civil war in Syria was precipitated by a catastrophic drought causing agricultural failure and forcing families to flee from the countryside into urban areas. Rising food prices brought the Arab Spring into Syria; Bashar Al-Assad responded with violence.

Drought, leading to starvation and cholera, helped to precipitate the Houthi rebellion in Yemen. The situation has since been worsened by bombing and blockade.

Low rainfall in North Africa between 2007 and 2010 contributed to the emergence of Arab Spring which by 2017 had overthrown oppressive regimes in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and Yemen, and later spread to Syria.

The Great Green Wall is a symbol of hope.

Coastal cities, especially those close to the estuaries of large rivers, are liable to flooding as sea levels rise. Sea water will threaten agriculture and the provision of fresh water.

Population movement will bring border clashes.

The charity Practical Action has developed floating gardens and small-scale fish farms to address these problems, especially in Bangladesh.

Farming in Kyrgystan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan relies on melting glaciers for irrigation and for hydroelectricity.

Glacier loss will exacerbate border disputes in this region.

The chief impact of climate change on prosperous nations has been an increase in climate-driven immigration from North Africa and the Middle East.

Military spending far exceeds climate spending. Note the danger of over-fishing. Will Covid-19 change our priorities?

Classical economic theory cannot cope with the climate emerrgency.

Racists and nationalist populists have attempted to blame immigrants for a shortage of jobs, schools, housing, etc.

As Arctic sea-ice melts, it is feared that the US, Canada, Russia and China will come into conflict over the sea lanes that are opening up, and over underwater minerals.

Dungeness B power station

Because nuclear power stations need large volumes of cooling water, they are mostly built on coastal sites. This will make them especially vulnerable to flooding as global warming brings rising sea levels.
Foe example a Kent County Council impact assessment warns that a combination of coastal flooding and high winds might cause radiation contamination from Dungeness nuclear power station to spread across South East England.